Anteriorāposterior patterning in in vitro derived neural crest.
Schematic diagram summarising the generation of the four subcategories of NC from human pluripotent stem cells (hPSCs). The major signalling pathways known to regulate differentiation are displayed for each subcategory. Cranial and vagal NC differentiation methods use the same initial signalling pathways but vagal NC are posteriorised using the addition of retinoic acid (RA) signalling. Trunk and sacral NC are derived via a common neuromesodermal progenitor (NMP) population. When sacral NC obtain a sacral identity remains unclear, but two potential routes and signalling pathways are displayed in grey. In the first route, trunk NC are posteriorized by GDF signalling, whereas in the second NMPs or pre-neural progenitors (PNP) are posteriorized by GDF prior to NC specification.