Effects of ICRI on the intestine and distal organs
When ICRI occurs, four of the gut barriers; mechanical, chemical, immunity, and/or biological are dismantled and various inflammatory mediators, cytokines, endotoxins, and related bacterial metabolites are produced that cause damage to the intestine itself. In addition, these substances enter the distal organs with blood circulation or other routes, causing damage to the distal organs. Among them, endotoxins have the most voluminous effect. It can induce the production of downstream products of inflammation by combining with TLR4 and increase the degree of heart failure; and can also stimulate PMN to further intensify the inflammatory response and trigger the cells to aggravate liver damage; or increase the matrix metalloproteinases. The production of plastid cells destroys the blood–brain barrier and the central nervous system situation; it also causes damage to pulmonary blood vessels and tissues. Abbreviations: FXR, farnesoid X receptor; LPS, lipopolysaccharide; MAMP, microbe-associated molecular pattern; SCFA, short-chain fatty acid; TLR4, toll-like receptor 4; TMA, trimethylamine; TMAO, trimethylamine N-oxidation.